THE CHALLENGES AND CHOICES IN MAKING HEADWAY

Annual Review of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, Volume 2, 2005

THE CHALLENGES AND CHOICES IN MAKING HEADWAY IN OPEN LEARNING AND DISTANCE EDUCATION FOR TEACHER TRAINING: ANALYTICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON THE FEASIBILITY OF BIMODAL PROVISION

DANIEL DINIS DA COSTA

Abstract

This literature review aims at discussing existing conditions for a new paradigm for teacher training by deconstructing the present conventional and single open-distance learning delivery modes for teacher training, looking at feasibility and sustainability of a bimodal provision in Mozambique. In other words, it identifies the major external contexts that can affect training institutions on becoming dual-mode providers and discusses further some elements of global and African trends. As it re-examines studies and reports on the Institute for Teachers Upgrading (IAP) and Pedagogical University (UP), perceives conditions for such new paradigm. Additionally, it argues that such changes to dual-mode approach bear some implications vis-?-vis new organisational culture, roles and information technologies. In many respects, the paper proposes that a wise move to adopt/adapt mixed model requires the reinterpretation of the conventional and single open-distance learning approaches, whilst examining the feasible bimodal provision prospect to realistically meet demands on teacher shortages as well as the professional competence.

1. Introduction

The present literature review aims at reviewing the existing conditions for a new paradigm in teacher training provision by mainstreaming open -learning and distance education (OLDE). The teacher education provision within the Pedagogical University (UP) and Institute of Teacher Upgrading (IAP) in Mozambique is changing rapidly, mainly as a result of its response to the growing demands and pressures for increased access to further and higher education and indeed the effect of newly evolving routes of information and communication technologies the world is experiencing.

The existing archetypes of OLDE in much of Africa are timid yet promising exemplars of moving from traditional conservatism into a progressive bimodal provision by introducing OLDE, an educational process in which,

Since there are no panaceas in education, strategies of using a single medium a course can fail or terminate (broadcasting and cassettes in Swaziland and Nigeria). At the opposite end of spectrum, according to Brophy and Dudley (1982) in their ‘patterns of distance teaching in teacher education’, there are, though, successful cases, such as that of the Logos II programme in Brazil, using solely correspondence lessons. In many respects, experiences elsewhere and research evidence show that an OLDE programme operating more than one medium is more robust than that employing only a single one (ITEK/IEC,2002). Having different medium different advantages and limitations, they complement each other. Say, for example, from a Lomwe Language print module, if combined with an audiocassette or video, learners could benefit more.

On the other hand, OLDE is already spawning disquiet and resonant disbeliefs among scholars who begin to witness the unstoppable swift shift from conventional training in favour of distance learning provision, i.e. adapting dual-mode provision strategies.

What do we understand by a dual-mode provision?

However at the same time certain assumptions derived from much opinion of a socio-political and economic nature, lay behind the creation of institutions such a single national OLDE Institute for teachers training to address emergencies such as the teacher shortages. For the case of Sheffield University, Schuller (1995) argued that there were changes going on in the social and political environment in which universities find themselves; in fact, there was an increase in candidate entry (30%), students taking full-time jobs, more travelling costs for part-time courses, leading to a loss of students and income. This stirred up the need for adopting distance-learning methodology, co-habiting with the conventional one. To put these moves in context, the next section discusses the changing of external realities that influence the current trends.

2. The changing of external context

Over the centuries, "advances in technology…have powered paradigmatic shifts in education” (Bizhan,1997). This technological r-evolution, not only triggered changes in demographic trends, political forces, economical factors, the need for lifelong learning, and the changing emphases in teaching and learning, but also produced a resurgence of interest in OLDE both in traditional institutions of higher education and in organisations, which sole mission is OLDE (Dede,1990).

The surge of the OLDE mode led to fierce competition between some organisations, while others are ill-prepared to meet new students’ demands. External realities also influenced OLDE research and accelerated changes from the merely anecdotal strand to evidence-based research, reviving it. At one end of the spectrum, Rekkedal (1994) believes that the most powerful force for development in OLDE comes from the synergetic effect of interrelating research and practice. At the other, Robinson and Latchem in 2003 examined different research and evaluation studies OLDE strategies from which they identified five models: experimental, goal-oriented, decision-oriented, user-oriented and responsive.

These models provide directions to best investigate the dual-mode approaches in teacher education provision in Mozambique. It is obvious that Mozambique’s needs are well beyond the existing capacity even in conventional education. Thus, it appears that a radical change, by reducing the dependence of students on face-to-face contact with teachers, is the likelihood, but a demanding one.

Such moves towards OLDE are the right alternative, since it increases the output and concurrently decreases the need for face-to-face contact with teachers (Gundani,1992). Further, he argues that it is cost-effective, if planned, organised and implemented well. Overwhelmed by the increasing needs of schooling, successive Mozambican Governments (1994-2005), despite a recognisable lack of resources and capabilities, initiated a formal integration of OLDE methodologies as well as communication technologies.

Meantime, while being bombarded by ‘super highways’ communication technologies, the immunity against the effect of their globalising impact is minute (cf.Meddleshurst,2003). The impact of globalisation [in Mozambique] is conveyed through technological advances that will create [at least, distant] changes in the educational system (Schank&Jona,2001), including the organisation of universities and colleges, new roles for teachers embedded in the curriculum and instructional development (Basogain et.al.,2002).

To deconstruct how this changing of external context influences local connections, a closer examination of international landscape portrays significant similarities and differences as elaborated below.

2.1 The global landscape

Although the rising of single-mode organisations such as the Open University (OU-UK) and UNED respectively in the UK and Spain is an indisputable reality [see figure 1 below], OLDE in dual-mode institutions is emerging too (Daniel,1998).

In other words, Daniel (ibid.) describes single-mode OLDE universities as mega-universities devoted to solving an educational problem, most of which are with over 100,000 students such as UNISA-S.Africa with 130,000 students. They offer flexible OLDE courses at affordable rates than those of on-campus. According to Prescott and Robinson (1993), the prospect of using OLDE for teacher training did not figure prominently in the earliest plans of the OU-UK. It was only in 1991 that the OU-UK started to offer comprehensive undergraduate and postgraduate initial and in-service teacher training courses designed for self-study. It is worth stressing that an important feature of the OU-UK system [see figure 2 above], contributing to its success as OLDE institution as a whole, is its regional network for supporting students and tutors (Bates,2000).

On the other hand, what characterises a dual-mode institution is its capacity to reach out to the intended target group. Unlike the single-mode mega-universities that work on economies of scale, dual-mode institutions tend to focus on local communities.

In fact, Australia refrained from a single-mode OLDE system due to realisation that this is “too centralised and inhibiting to the innovative dual-mode approaches already accepted in several Australian Universities” (Karmel, Nodate). It is interesting to realise that for instance the University of Southern Queensland is already producing economies of scale compared with those in single-mode institutions.

What are the main features of dual-mode delivery?

In taking a closer look at two emblematic examples of typical dual-mode institutions, their main features are depicted in table1.

These experiences evolved over time and pointed to a direction of integrating and putting flexible learning at heart of policy-making (Nunam,1996) to which lays equity and openness in access, interaction, study patterns, flexible curriculum content, support systems, appropriate information technologies, organisational structures and collaboration as main features.

Additionally, Guest (2005:288) identifies two dimensions of current applied flexible learning as being a) that which empowers students to make decisions about all aspects of their learning environment and b) which relies on institutional arrangements for delivery of students learning.

Both Australia and USA’s cases necessitate substantial investments to generate economies of scale which, in turn, to reduce costs. Nevertheless, the cost-effectiveness relies on a large population to justify economies of scale. Ashenden (1987), in his study on rationalising teacher training and OLDE, concluded that

To attain its purposes, economies of scale make extensive use of electronic means. The obvious impact of such ‘virtual classes’ is that they are a paperless learning mode. Obvious though their outcomes may have been, nevertheless there is a considerable debate as to whether African institutions will rapidly integrate information technologies, as it does not appear below that this is likely.

2.2 The African situation

a) Purposes of OLDE

In Africa, teacher training institutions such those in Zambia, Nigeria and Kenya mainly deliver text-based materials for off-campus studies. These programmes are generally designed to address teacher shortages and upgrade them whereas the existing traditional programme cannot accomplish this alone (Perraton,1993) and does much for their academic qualification than it could do for professional development. Robison and Latchem’s recent study suggests sixteen purposes of African OLDE programmes of which some are stated in figure 3 below.

By looking at these purposes, one could argue that, on the one hand, most OLDE programmes entail values and methodologies to employ at appropriate scale to attain their goals. It transpires, on the other hand, that in dual-mode teacher training, OLDE can serve to make it possible to reach students who cannot get to a college. They lend themselves to part-time education so that students are not taken out of the work force in order to study. Needless then are new infrastructures for face-to-face organisational set-up, since economies on these are allowed by the off-campus studies of which criteria follows.

b) Criteria for measuring OLDE programmes

As well as measuring the economies of scale, OLDE programme can assist to inform decisions on policy-making. In Table 2, Perraton (1993a) provides unequivocal criteria to measure OLDE mode to an audience in Africa. These criteria measure training in three-fold category: pre-service initial training for inexperienced teachers, in-service initial training for experienced teachers, and continuing education. A closer examination of these criteria, the centrepiece of OLDE actually is the convergence of underpinning curriculum models with those of conventional teaching and learning, as demonstrated below.

C) Models of OLDE programmes

It is anticipated that the framework for OLDE programme is tied to the above criteria, which, in turn, comprise five training models, which Parraton (2001) proposes in figure 4.

In Africa, there is a small number of cases of the bimodal model, being in most cases emergency programmes. In choosing these models, governments strive to respond mostly to teacher supply requirements which table 3 synthesises for four countries.

These models which have been identified dictate the type of responsibilities in key functions such the investment, material development, printing, distribution, marking and supervising of students’ work for their success. Thus far, foundations for discussing the Mozambican context are laid.

4. Review of OLDE for teacher training in Mozambique

4.1 The origins of IAP as single-mode institution

On attaining independence, Mozambique was faced with an acute shortage of teachers to meet the spiralled demand by primary schools. The Government presented a report that indicated the need for adult and teacher training through OLDE, which in 1982 was undertaken subsequently by an OLDE Nucleus and Education Development Institute’s Unit, the teachers being the main beneficiaries (ca.Buendia).

In 1983, the Instituto de Radiofus?o da Bahia (IRB) (Brazil Bahia Institute of Broadcasting) won the bid to train the Unit’s staff to produce and manage an OLDE system. From its beginning in 1984, an OLDE programme managed to reach 1224 teachers in seven of the eleven provinces, providing self-instructional materials and the use of radio. In 1987, the civil unrest caused the interruption of OLDE programmes. According to Franque (1993), the course outcome then indicated a 30% success rate.

Subsequently, the MOE officially approved an IAP programme i that was to upgrade untrained teachers and supply new teachers to the system. Recent internal reports indicate that there is a need to revise the learning materials, promote regular provincial supervisors’ meetings, supervision and teaching practice in schools.

4.1.1 Planning the programmes

The IAP OLDE programme particularly attracts untrained teachers to the system. The OLDE programme is comparable to that administered in primary teacher training colleges (CFPP). The implementation process is of the following pattern.

The curriculum programme covers academic training (38%) and professional training (62%) and is four years long, but trainees can complete it on their own path and time-scale. The OLDE implementation plan covered training the IAP staff in production techniques and management, materials design, setting out a replication model of training of local implementers. Some critics seriously decry the IAP curriculum as too academic, raising the need for its revision. In addition to this, tutoring staff requires training on student-centred flexible learning.

4.1.2 Recruitment and training of technical staff and local tutors

As explained in section 4.1, IRB conducted the initial training of technical staff and selected local tutors. Subsequently, national teams conducted training activity in the provinces. These training activities appear to have enjoyed popularity among tutors and teachers. These findings were later confirmed by an independent evaluation study team report, commissioned as part of the Mozambique OLDE Project (Tembe&Todds,2003), as will be discussed in the next section.

4.1.3 The Evaluation study of IAP programme

a) Self-study

An increasing numbers of trainees complete the 2,600 hours course of fifty-one print modules in less than the time-scale of four years. It would be mistake, however, to judge the completion-rate alone without looking at the underlying curriculum model. The latter explains the reasons for the prevailing subjects’ multiplicity and compartmentalisation, which caused a disjoined and varied course design process. A stronger teamwork approach is best way to avoid problems of such magnitude.

Notwithstanding the negative effects of these problems, the print materials enjoy a higher user satisfaction as it is understood to lead to learning comprehension’ (cf.Newton,1990) since there are no other alternatives. There is common sense that a relatively stronger learning support services play its part for it.

b) Students support, tutorial service and supervision

The success of IAP programme stems from the relatively well-organised support services, through more than three hundred scattered learning centres (N?cleos Pedag?gicos), to reach out to targeted teachers, particularly those in remote rural areas. Qualified younger professionals conduct student support and tutorial services and supervision. Nevertheless, they lack work experience for a robust supervisory function during face-to-face interaction during the school practice and tutorials.

I- Face-to-face tutorials

Face-to-face services of IAP course are essential for making available the human interaction among participants and tutors, and for checking their progress and providing feedback on learners’ needs as they occur. More than 80% of 255 trainee and graduate enquirees assessed the tutorial services as very useful and 20% think that they are useful. Yet, there is a need for a counselling service for advising on study problems and support with difficult learning units or topics (Visser,1999) and in teaching practice alike.

II- Teaching practice

There is a realisation that training activities at the learning centre and in trainee’s self-study are aloof of the reality of the classroom. The evaluation study report suggests that in-class training can improve the actual classroom practice if there is an opportunity for observation, peer group discussions and understanding the underpinnings of classroom interaction. The study report suggests a system similar to apprenticeship practice to which the integration of microteaching tasks can lead to trainees’ assessment and self-reflection of their own teaching practice.

III- Assessment and certification system

Assessment is a systematic activity that plays large part of IAP programme. Clearly, there are boundaries within programme appraisal as to how much of the programme as a whole to be assessed over certain point in time. For specific case of students, assessment takes place at the end of each of 51 course modules and teaching practice. Nonetheless, there is a concern over this large volume of study materials, centralised system of feedback, progression and graduation certificates, which affects teacher morale and motivation for learning.

4.1.4 Organisation and management

a) Institutional governance

The institutional IAP governance is indeed greatly dependent on central control as figure 5 illustrates. Should there been a more functional structure to allow greater flexibility and innovation, then learners with specific needs could benefit more at distance. In sum, the present structure is dense and bureaucratic to the extent that it slows important processes such as the students’ records and information management.

b) Records and information management

The IAP system needs reform to provide a reliable recording and information management of training activities. In practical terms, its database needs upgrading to offer more analytical features. Borrowing or buying from sub-region experiences/software to re-design and install a new one is urgent. This effort can help to measure how cost-effective are training activities too. Moving on, let us look at the OLDE at Universidade Pedag?gica (UP).

4.2 The UP as dual-mode institution

The UP is a higher education institution founded in the late 80’s that has a mission and tradition to train secondary education teachers, responding to the prevailing problem of teacher shortages in secondary schools.

Since there is a realisation that the single-mode alone cannot meet the demand for teacher supply, the UP is currently taking steps towards being a bimodal university. Some organisational culture and policy vacuum hinders full mainstreaming and development of OLDE.

4.2.1 Planning stage

The UP provides OLDE degree programme at a flexible length of 4/5 years, with a curriculum akin to conventional one.

The course provision obeys a developmental process. That is, changes are made in the course materials along with courses’ implementation. One striking feature is that there is a systematic content coverage and the underlying curriculum model does arise from the materials. The existing provisions combine face-to-face and self-study to deliver training at distance.

4.2.2 UP programme components

a) Self-study

Students base their self-study on adapted print modules, which the faculties, through the Centro de Educa??o a Dist?ncia (CEAD), provide as the training evolves. The modules are a valuable resource. However, beyond their availability, there are some questions of quality to ask as well as the type of learning support and assessment system in place.

b) Students support and assessment

The UP works through its CEAD and learning centres for student support services. Depending on course design, teams of tutors have regular face-to-face tutorials and follow-up contacts with their OLDE students. Nevertheless, this component requires complete reorganisation in its format to reduce costs for travelling lecturers.

Quite rightly, the UP exam format and certification procedures are in compliance with that of traditional learning modes to enable the analysis of learning outcomes. This provision maintains the whole-institution’s quality-assurance mechanism, regarding the students’ evaluation.

4.2.4 The system administration

a) Organisation and management

Although CEAD is an autonomous faculty that produces and implements UP OLDE courses, the board of studies committee oversees it and approves them beforehand. Most structural and administrative-financial decisions rest ultimately with the Vice-Chancellor. The Dean of CEAD has a difficult mission to deal with other faculties to organise and offer OLDE courses. This precludes CEAD from innovative approaches, as claimed earlier by Karmel. The top-down and dependent functional structure, as in figure 6 above, is potentially prone to extravagant decisions, failing to address the real problems and needs in the front-line operations, which need a sound planning, and budgeting activity.

What are the lessons learned from IAP and UP programmes?

Succinctly, it appears that the IAP is a typical single-mode institution whose main function is to address socio-political issues in education. However, a significant body of experience has been gained in Mozambique in the provision of courses by OLDE (DANIDA,2001). This may be the basis for the IAP’s new paradigm of a bimodal provision along with other teacher training institutes (IMAPs), by also learning from the emerging bimodal model at Pedagogical University (Universidade Pedag?gica/UP).

Both IAP and UP’s programmes then face emerging specific challenges in relation to their current experiences which are discussed below.

5. Specific challenges facing teacher education for dual-mode provision

Three challenges face institutions intending to introduce a bimodal approach: The first, the need for infrastructural settings to afford modern technologies (high-bandwidth) or print material (powerful tool when it is well designed).

The second substantial change, a sound financial capacity to run a technology-based learning system that is meaningful and sustainable (Foks,1984 and Catherall,2005). As Bates (Ibid.) suggested, 5% (gross) of the total teaching budget needs to be spent on technical and instructional support staff for academic staff. Indeed, it is a challenge not to underestimate the realistic potential of the system administrators and lecturers’ training.

Lastly, the teacher training institutions are before an enormous exercise to as well as they are pressurised to meet quality education, have to respond the accumulated demands by schools for new teachers.

6. Interim conclusions

In summary, this literature review paper examined the evolutionary process (changes) that can possibly trigger further discussion and analysis of bimodal approach feasibility in training teachers. However, there is a need to deconstruct or at least to reinterpret the model(s), looking through the revolutionary process (intelligible move) (Inglis,1994), against the potential value-added to the Mozambican challenges.

The paper argued that by changing from traditional conventional to bimodal approaches, these organisations, sooner rather than later, should think of their implications, inter-alia, new organisational structures and roles in the new training paradigm. Olcott and Schmidt (2000) consciously reflected on the on-going merging of organisational frameworks.

By reflectively listening to what they think their role and behaviour will be academics as practitioners, policy makers and researchers should optimise synergies to judge how feasible and sustainable is to apply single or bimodal training modes.

7. Prospect for a new paradigm

Moving beyond the boundary of the single-mode approach, to operate a new bimodal paradigm (new intelligence) requires an integrated approach, as:

7.1 From organisational structures to organisational culture

Institutions, if they are to fully embrace a bimodal mode of training, should shy away from “structuralism” to be preoccupied about how to build within its setting a new organisational culture.

Marian (1992) (cf. Schien, 1987) pointed out that the organisational culture is considered to have six common means: observed behavioural regularities; the norm of working groups; the dominant values espoused by the organisation; the philosophy that guides policy development; the rule for getting along; and the feeling or climate in the organisation. The teamwork culture is an added-power and management dimension for OLDE because it motivates interaction.

It can however be recognised that just as no post-secondary institution is mesmerized by one-way culture, so it is also true that dual-mode providers hold myriad and sophisticated organisational cultures. These inform which ways to take in accommodating OLDE roles.

7.2 From academic posts to professional roles

In academia, the transmission model is considered a praxis whereby learners simply take a passive role as “a receiver of such delivery” (Lin et.al,1996). Moving towards dual-mode teaching requires changes of such conditions in which individualism dominates, to a student-centred approach in which learning is flexible to suit the individual needs.

Guest (2005:294), however, argues that a shift to a more student-centred approach to teaching and learning that gives students greater choice over their learning environment on technology is likely to improve academic achievement to some students but not others. The ability to use technologies (including the print material) in the forefront learning purposes rather than merely to complement conventional teaching (Hall,1996) is then a challenge. Technology must have new purposeful professional means to create an interactive and social presence (user-friendly) in OLDE. In turn, it should bring in attributes and outcomes of real time, two-way exchange of information (Guanawardena&Zittle,1995).

An interesting idea stems from a proposition for training institutions, which advocates a new management mindset (Kimball,2002) to take advantage of OLDE technologies, as well-documented in the figure 4.

It appears that the new management mindset develops based on student-centred approach, to which Guest (2005:295) calls for a cautionary standing against its potential benefits and dangers it brings, being necessary a further analysis.

7.3 From laissez-faire to proper student support services

There is no doubt that a well-developed student support service is a cornerstone for effective learning delivery at both self-study and face-to-face stages. COL (1994) suggested that dual-mode institutions’ support services may still vary in range and type as far as the students’ needs, technical, human and fiscal resources are concerned, catering for students’ academic success and welfare. This requires clear framework that will include procedures on assessment and examination.

7.4 From dispersed to unified evaluation system

In a dual-mode institution, assessment and examination are as important as in a single traditional teaching institution. The rules, regulations, and accreditation framework form the basis for validating the students’ studies at distance should be appropriate, relevant, and comparable weight with those in conventional system. Therefore, it is important to deal with assessment matters on equal terms, as it should be on the underpinning curriculum model and access.

7.5 From evasive to sound instructional curriculum design

Instructional curriculum design is at the core of curriculum implementation and it is a prerequisite for the successful dual-mode provision of teacher training courses. A course design is exhausting work, as it needs careful planning, organisation and sound implementation to attain its goals.

One could argue that the syllabus outline should be tied to learning outcomes and surpass subjects’ content confinements to ensure integration, sequence and relevance. Therefore, the learning materials, in displaying these features, can contribute to a cost-effective programme.

7.6 From unrealistic to cost-effective OLDE programmes

Due to the highly over-centralised administrative structures, most studies reviewed give little disclosure of the full expenditure and income figures of training institutions. For instance, Tembe and Dodds study [ibid.] mentioned that “it has proved impossible to obtain in the time available the necessary information on which to compile a remotely comprehensive section on costs and finances of IAP to date”.

Cost-effectiveness can only be achieved through a comparable and detailed cost analysis on capital and recurrent costs. The budget lines hold information on fixed and variable costs. Lessons taken from a Perraton [1993a] study indicate, in fact, that where it has been possible to measure effectiveness, teacher training at a distance can be effective and that its costs tend to be lower than those of conventional education. Cost-effectiveness, to this end, plays a large part in assessing the feasibility of a bimodal provision in the context of unprecedented teacher shortages in schools.

Note
i Ministerial directive (Diploma-Ministerial 56/88-25th April).

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About the author
Daniel Dinis da Costa is currently a PhD student in the University of Newcastle School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences. His area of interest is Open-distance learning, particularly the subsystems of applied instructional design and administration.
Email: d.d.da-costa@ncl.ac.uk