ESRC
ECONOMIC
& SOCIAL
RESEARCH
COUNCIL

LEARNING SOCIETY
PROGRAMME

PRINCIPAL
RESEARCHERS

Professor Gareth Rees
Cardiff University

Professor Ralph Fevre
Cardiff University

Dr Stephen Gorard
Cardiff University

Professor John Furlong
Bristol University

CONTACT
ADDRESS

Professor Gareth Rees
School of Social Sciences
Cardiff University
21 Senghennydd Road,
Cardiff  CF2 4YG
Tel:  01222 874848
Fax:  01222 874520
Email:  reesg1@cardiff.ac.uk

Duration
30 months
PARTICIPATION IN POST-COMPULSORY EDUCATION AND
TRAINING: A REGIONAL STUDY

OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this study was to develop a better understanding of what determines people to participate or not to participate in lifelong learning.  It involved an analysis of changes in participation over time and detailed consideration of the impacts of locally specific patterns of social and economic development.  This should contribute to the development of policies which will enhance participation in education and training, especially amongst those social groups which are currently under-represented.  More specifically, the study asked:
	How have patterns of participation and non-participation in post-compulsory education and training in industrial South Wales changed over time?
	In what ways have patterns of participation and non-participation in post-compulsory education and training been influenced by individual attributes and motivations, by family structures and backgrounds, by changes in educational provision, and by the radical changes in the social and economic structure of industrial South Wales?

APPROACH

This in-depth analysis of a single region - South Wales, one of the most important industrial regions in Britain - used a variety of data sources, contemporary and historical.  The region was used as a ‘social laboratory’ to chart long-term historical patterns and uncovered fundamental relationships and processes which determined participation in lifelong learning.  The implications of this study are not confined to the specific regional context in which the empirical research was carried out.

Information from respondents was gathered in two stages: a questionnaire survey of 1,104 respondents, chosen to reflect the local diversity of social and economic conditions, and extended, semi-structured interviews with a 10% (105 respondents), which represented the characteristics of the main sample.  The survey collected data of four principal kinds: social/demographic characteristics of individual respondents; detailed histories of their post-compulsory educational and training careers; and simplified histories of their employment careers and of the educational and training careers of their family.  Their education and training histories were classified into 11 ‘lifelong learning trajectories’, which describe almost all of the variations in individual histories.  Analysis permitted the identification of those characteristics of individuals which provided good predictions of which trajectories they follow.  The interviews focused on respondents’ recollections of how their career unfolded.  The full historical range of the study was made possible by the analysis of materials held in the South Wales Coalfield Archive, which provided a primary source of data on the nature and determinants of participation in education and training during the first half of the twentieth century.

MAIN FINDINGS

Non-participants accounted for almost a third of respondents, whose experience of lifelong learning ended with initial schooling.  This confirms previous accounts of the size of the task confronting policy-makers seeking to promote lifelong learning.

Five broad factors emerged as having a significant impact on participation and non-participation (the full model includes over 40 independent variables):
	Time - When respondents were born determines their relationship to changing opportunities for learning and social expectations.  Respondents with similar social backgrounds from different birth cohorts exhibit different tendencies to participate in education and training.
	Place - Where respondents are born and brought up shapes their access to specifically local opportunities to participate and social expectations.  Those from the most economically disadvantaged areas (eg Blaenau Gwent) are least likely to participate in lifelong learning.  However, those who have moved between regions are even more likely to participate than those living in the more advantaged localities.

	Gender - Men consistently report more formal learning than women.   Although the situation is changing, these changes are different for each gender.  Women are still less likely to participate in lifelong learning but are now more likely to have extended initial education.
•	Family - Parents’ social class, educational experience and religion are perhaps the most important determinants of participation in lifelong learning.  Family background is influential in a number of ways, most obviously in material terms, but also in terms of what are understood to be the ‘natural’ forms of participation.
	Initial Schooling - Experience of initial schooling is crucial in shaping long-term orientations towards learning; and in providing qualifications necessary to access many forms of further and higher education, as well as continuing education and training later in life.  There are important age effects here, however, relating especially to the reorganisation of secondary schooling in the maintained sector.

All of these factors reflect characteristics of respondents which are determined relatively early in life.  Those characteristics which are set very early in an individual’s life, such as age, gender and family background, predict later ‘lifelong learning trajectories’ with over 75% accuracy.  Adding the variables representing initial schooling increases the accuracy of prediction to 86%, rising to 89% and 90% respectively when the variables associated with adult life and respondents’ present circumstances are included.  This does not imply that people do not have choices, or that life crises have little impact, but rather that these choices and crises occur within a framework of opportunities, influences and social expectations that are determined independently.  It is the latter which appear most influential.

Individuals’ own accounts of their education and training after school showed that any choices that were made were heavily constrained by external circumstances.  The learning opportunities of many older women were limited by local employment, by social expectations as to what was appropriate or by a ‘forced altruism’ with respect to family commitments (themes which are reproduced for earlier periods in the archival analysis). To make sense of individuals’ learning histories, it is necessary to understand the ways in which learning opportunities were perceived when decisions over participation were being made.

Those who ’failed’ at school often expressed negative views on the relevance of post-school learning to their needs and capabilities and even work-based learning was viewed as unnecessary.  Formal training was devalued and effective performance in a job was attributed to common sense and experience.

The difference between the way in which work-place training was viewed by many respondents and that embodied in policy is a cause for concern.  The difference seems not to have been affected by the introduction of competence-based National Vocation Qualifications and other government and employer-led initiatives to raise the profile of training.  The fact that many people were able to acquire substantial knowledge and skills - inside and outside employment - without formal training provides strong support for the growing acknowledgement amongst policy-makers that informal learning in the workplace, the family and community is significant.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

Non-participation is largely a product of the fact that individuals do not see education and training as appropriate for them and these views are structured by factors which occur relatively early in life.  Policies which simply make it easier for people to participate in the kinds of education and training which are already available (eg removing barriers to participation, such as costs, time and lack of child-care) will have only limited impacts.  These conclusions, however, need to be qualified.  Where the analysis distinguishes between those forms of participation which occur immediately after compulsory schooling and those which occur later in life, different factors are highlighted.  These results offer important correctives to the conventional view of participation in lifelong learning, and also raise the crucial policy issue of where scarce resources for education and training should be directed, especially given the focus up until now on ‘front-loading’ investment into initial schooling.  Shifting this balance in favour of policies addressed to post-21 participation would appear to be more efficient and cost-effective.

KEY PUBLICATIONS

Rees, G, Fevre, R, Furlong, J & Gorard, S (1997) ‘History, place and the learning society: Towards a sociology of lifetime learning’, Journal of Education Policy, 12, 6, 485-497
Gorard. S, Rees, G, Fevre, R & Furlong, J (1998) ‘The two components of a new Learning Society’, Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 50, 1, 5-19
Gorard. S, Rees, G, Fevre, R & Furlong, J (1998) ‘Learning trajectories: Travelling towards a learning society?’, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 17, 6, 400-410
Gorard. S, Rees, G, Furlong, J & Fevre, R (1998) ‘Progress towards a Learning Society? Patterns of Lifelong Learning’, Innovations in Education and Training International, 35, 4, 275-281
Gorard. S, Rees, G, Fevre, R & Furlong, J (1998) ‘Society is not built by education alone: alternative routes to a Learning Society’, Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 3, 1, 25-37
Gorard. S, Rees, G & Fevre, R (1999) ‘Two dimensions of time: the changing social context of lifelong learning’, Studies in the Education of Adults, 31, 1, 35-48
Gorard. S, Rees, G and Fevre, R (1999) ‘Patterns of Participation in Lifelong Learning: Do families make a difference?’ British Educational Research Journal (forthcoming)
Gorard. S, Fevre, R & Rees, G (1999) ‘The apparent decline of informal learning’, Oxford Review of Education, 25, 4