Questions as to how exploitation affects target species and the structure of ecosystems can only be addressed at large spatial scale. Thus our work related to this has for 20 years consisted of macro-ecological approaches, for example making use of comparisons between protected and unprotected areas (e.g. Caribbean) or across fishing pressure gradients (e.g. Fiji). The work involves fishing-gradient and long-term data also from the Philippines, Kenya and North Sea, on fishing, loss of vulnerable species, and consequences of this for the ecosystem, using fishery, underwater and social data. The North Sea work is at an early stage and to date has focussed on methods for assessing habitat and biodiversity changes.
